卷三十·平准书第八
卷三十·平准书第八
司马迁
汉兴，接秦之弊，丈夫从军旅，老弱转粮饟，作业剧而财匮，自天子不能具钧驷，而将相或乘牛车，齐民无藏盖。于是为秦钱重难用，更令民铸钱，一黄金一斤，约法省禁。而不轨逐利之民，蓄积余业以稽市物，物踊腾粜，米至石万钱，马一匹则百金。
天下已平，高祖乃令贾人不得衣丝乘车，重租税以困辱之。孝惠、高后时，为天下初定，复弛商贾之律，然市井之子孙亦不得仕宦为吏。量吏禄，度官用，以赋于民。而山川园池市井租税之入，自天子以至于封君汤沐邑，皆各为私奉养焉，不领于天下之经费。漕转山东粟，以给中都官，岁不过数十万石。
至孝文时，荚钱益多，轻，乃更铸四铢钱，其文为“半两”，令民纵得自铸钱。故吴，诸侯也，以即山铸钱，富埒天子，其后卒以叛逆。邓通，大夫也，以铸钱财过王者。故吴、邓氏钱布天下，而铸钱之禁生焉。
匈奴数侵盗北边，屯戍者多，边粟不足给食当食者。于是募民能输及转粟于边者拜爵，爵得至大庶长。
孝景时，上郡以西旱，亦复脩卖爵令，而贱其价以招民；及徒复作，得输粟县官以除罪。益造苑马以广用，而宫室列观舆马益增脩矣。
至今上即位数岁，汉兴七十余年之间，国家无事，非遇水旱之灾，民则人给家足，都鄙廪庾皆满，而府库余货财。京师之钱累巨万，贯朽而不可校。太仓之粟陈陈相因，充溢露积于外，至腐败不可食。众庶街巷有马，阡陌之间成群，而乘字牝者傧而不得聚会。守闾阎者食粱肉，为吏者长子孙，居官者以为姓号。故人人自爱而重犯法，先行义而后绌耻辱焉。当此之时，网疏而民富，役财骄溢，或至兼并豪党之徒，以武断于乡曲。宗室有土公卿大夫以下，争于奢侈，室庐舆服僭于上，无限度。物盛而衰，固其变也。
自是之后，严助、朱买臣等招来东瓯，事两越，江淮之间萧然烦费矣。唐蒙、司马相如开路西南夷，凿山通道千余里，以广巴蜀，巴蜀之民罢焉。彭吴贾灭朝鲜，置沧海之郡，则燕齐之间靡然发动。及王恢设谋马邑，匈奴绝和亲，侵扰北边，兵连而不解，天下苦其劳，而干戈日滋。行者赍，居者送，中外骚扰而相奉，百姓抏弊以巧法，财赂衰秏而不赡。入物者补官，出货者除罪，选举陵迟，廉耻相冒，武力进用，法严令具。兴利之臣自此始也。
其后汉将岁以数万骑出击胡，及车骑将军卫青取匈奴河南地，筑朔方。当是时，汉通西南夷道，作者数万人，千里负担馈粮，率十余钟致一石，散币于邛僰以集之。数岁道不通，蛮夷因以数攻，吏发兵诛之。悉巴蜀租赋不足以更之，乃募豪民田南夷，入粟县官，而内受钱于都内。东至沧海之郡，人徒之费拟于南夷。又兴十万余人筑卫朔方，转漕甚辽远，自山东咸被其劳，费数十百巨万，府库益虚。乃募民能入奴婢得以终身复，为郎增秩，及入羊为郎，始于此。
其后四年，而汉遣大将将六将军，军十余万，击右贤王，获首虏万五千级。明年，大将军将六将军仍再出击胡，得首虏万九千级。捕斩首虏之士受赐黄金二十余万斤，虏数万人皆得厚赏，衣食仰给县官；而汉军之士马死者十余万，兵甲之财转漕之费不与焉。于是大农陈藏钱经秏，赋税既竭，犹不足以奉战士。有司言：“天子曰‘朕闻五帝之教不相复而治，禹汤之法不同道而王，所由殊路，而建德一也。北边未安，朕甚悼之。日者，大将军攻匈奴，斩首虏万九千级，留蹛无所食。议令民得买爵及赎禁锢免减罪’。请置赏官，命曰武功爵。级十七万，凡直三十余万金。诸买武功爵官首者试补吏，先除；千夫如五大夫；其有罪又减二等；爵得至乐卿：以显军功。”军功多用越等，大者封侯卿大夫，小者郎吏。吏道杂而多端，则官职秏废。
自公孙弘以春秋之义绳臣下取汉相，张汤用峻文决理为廷尉，于是见知之法生，而废格沮诽穷治之狱用矣。其明年，淮南、衡山、江都王谋反迹见，而公卿寻端治之，竟其党与，而坐死者数万人，长吏益惨急而法令明察。
当是之时，招尊方正贤良文学之士，或至公卿大夫。公孙弘以汉相，布被，食不重味，为天下先。然无益于俗，稍骛于功利矣。
其明年，骠骑仍再出击胡，获首四万。其秋，浑邪王率数万之众来降，于是汉发车二万乘迎之。既至，受赏，赐及有功之士。是岁费凡百余巨万。
初，先是往十余岁河决观，梁楚之地固已数困，而缘河之郡隄塞河，辄决坏，费不可胜计。其后番系欲省底柱之漕，穿汾、河渠以为溉田，作者数万人；郑当时为渭漕渠回远，凿直渠自长安至华阴，作者数万人；朔方亦穿渠，作者数万人：各历二三期，功未就，费亦各巨万十数。
天子为伐胡，盛养马，马之来食长安者数万匹，卒牵掌者关中不足，乃调旁近郡。而胡降者皆衣食县官，县官不给，天子乃损膳，解乘舆驷，出御府禁藏以赡之。
其明年，山东被水菑，民多饥乏，于是天子遣使者虚郡国仓廥以振贫民。犹不足，又募豪富人相贷假。尚不能相救，乃徙贫民于关以西，及充朔方以南新秦中，七十余万口，衣食皆仰给县官。数岁，假予产业，使者分部护之，冠盖相望。其费以亿计，不可胜数。
于是县官大空，而富商大贾或蹛财役贫，转毂百数，废居居邑，封君皆低首仰给。冶铸煮盐，财或累万金，而不佐国家之急，黎民重困。于是天子与公卿议，更钱造币以赡用，而摧浮淫并兼之徒。是时禁苑有白鹿而少府多银锡。自孝文更造四铢钱，至是岁四十余年，从建元以来，用少，县官往往即多铜山而铸钱，民亦间盗铸钱，不可胜数。钱益多而轻，物益少而贵。有司言曰：“古者皮币，诸侯以聘享。金有三等，黄金为上，白金为中，赤金为下。今半两钱法重四铢，而奸或盗摩钱里取鋊，钱益轻薄而物贵，则远方用币烦费不省。”乃以白鹿皮方尺，缘以藻缋，为皮币，直四十万。王侯宗室朝觐聘享，必以皮币荐璧，然后得行。
又造银锡为白金。以为天用莫如龙，地用莫如马，人用莫如龟，故白金三品：其一曰重八两，圜之，其文龙，名曰“白选”，直三千；二曰以重差小，方之，其文马，直五百；三曰复小，撱之，其文龟，直三百。令县官销半两钱，更铸三铢钱，文如其重。盗铸诸金钱罪皆死，而吏民之盗铸白金者不可胜数。
于是以东郭咸阳、孔仅为大农丞，领盐铁事；桑弘羊以计算用事，侍中。咸阳，齐之大煮盐，孔仅，南阳大冶，皆致生累千金，故郑当时进言之。弘羊，雒阳贾人子，以心计，年十三侍中。故三人言利事析秋毫矣。
法既益严，吏多废免。兵革数动，民多买复及五大夫，徵发之士益鲜。于是除千夫五大夫为吏，不欲者出马；故吏皆適令伐棘上林，作昆明池。
其明年，大将军、骠骑大出击胡，得首虏八九万级，赏赐五十万金，汉军马死者十余万匹，转漕车甲之费不与焉。是时财匮，战士颇不得禄矣。
有司言三铢钱轻，易奸诈，乃更请诸郡国铸五铢钱，周郭其下，令不可磨取鋊焉。
大农上盐铁丞孔仅、咸阳言：“山海，天地之藏也，皆宜属少府，陛下不私，以属大农佐赋。愿募民自给费，因官器作煮盐，官与牢盆。浮食奇民欲擅管山海之货，以致富羡，役利细民。其沮事之议，不可胜听。敢私铸铁器煮盐者，釱左趾，没入其器物。郡不出铁者，置小铁官，便属在所县。”使孔仅、东郭咸阳乘传举行天下盐铁，作官府，除故盐铁家富者为吏。吏道益杂，不选，而多贾人矣。
商贾以币之变，多积货逐利。于是公卿言：“郡国颇被菑害，贫民无产业者，募徙广饶之地。陛下损膳省用，出禁钱以振元元，宽贷赋，而民不齐出于南亩，商贾滋众。贫者畜积无有，皆仰县官。异时算轺车贾人缗钱皆有差，请算如故。诸贾人末作贳贷卖买，居邑稽诸物，及商以取利者，虽无市籍，各以其物自占，率缗钱二千而一算。诸作有租及铸，率缗钱四千一算。非吏比者三老、北边骑士，轺车以一算；商贾人轺车二算；船五丈以上一算。匿不自占，占不悉，戍边一岁，没入缗钱。有能告者，以其半畀之。贾人有市籍者，及其家属，皆无得籍名田，以便农。敢犯令，没入田僮。”
天子乃思卜式之言，召拜式为中郎，爵左庶长，赐田十顷，布告天下，使明知之。
初，卜式者，河南人也，以田畜为事。亲死，式有少弟，弟壮，式脱身出分，独取畜羊百余，田宅财物尽予弟。式入山牧十余岁，羊致千余头，买田宅。而其弟尽破其业，式辄复分予弟者数矣。是时汉方数使将击匈奴，卜式上书，原输家之半县官助边。天子使使问式：“欲官乎？”式曰：“臣少牧，不习仕宦，不愿也。”使问曰：“家岂有冤，欲言事乎？”式曰：“臣生与人无分争。式邑人贫者贷之，不善者教顺之，所居人皆从式，式何故见冤于人！无所欲言也。”使者曰：“苟如此，子何欲而然？”式曰：“天子诛匈奴，愚以为贤者宜死节于边，有财者宜输委，如此而匈奴可灭也。”使者具其言入以闻。天子以语丞相弘。弘曰：“此非人情。不轨之臣，不可以为化而乱法，愿陛下勿许。”于是上久不报式，数岁，乃罢式。式归，复田牧。岁余，会军数出，浑邪王等降，县官费众，仓府空。其明年，贫民大徙，皆仰给县官，无以尽赡。卜式持钱二十万予河南守，以给徙民。河南上富人助贫人者籍，天子见卜式名，识之，曰“是固前而欲输其家半助边”，乃赐式外繇四百人。式又尽复予县官。是时富豪皆争匿财，唯式尤欲输之助费。天子于是以式终长者，故尊显以风百姓。
初，式不愿为郎。上曰：“吾有羊上林中，欲令子牧之。”式乃拜为郎，布衣屩而牧羊。岁余，羊肥息。上过见其羊，善之。式曰：“非独羊也，治民亦犹是也。以时起居；恶者辄斥去，毋令败群。”上以式为奇，拜为缑氏令试之，缑氏便之。迁为成皋令，将漕最。上以为式朴忠，拜为齐王太傅。
而孔仅之使天下铸作器，三年中拜为大农，列于九卿。而桑弘羊为大农丞，筦诸会计事，稍稍置均输以通货物矣。
始令吏得入谷补官，郎至六百石。
自造白金五铢钱后五岁，赦吏民之坐盗铸金钱死者数十万人。其不发觉相杀者，不可胜计。赦自出者百余万人。然不能半自出，天下大抵无虑皆铸金钱矣。犯者众，吏不能尽诛取，于是遣博士褚大、徐偃等分曹循行郡国，举兼并之徒守相为利者。而御史大夫张汤方隆贵用事，减宣、杜周等为中丞，义纵、尹齐、王温舒等用惨急刻深为九卿，而直指夏兰之属始出矣。
而大农颜异诛。初，异为济南亭长，以廉直稍迁至九卿。上与张汤既造白鹿皮币，问异。异曰：“今王侯朝贺以苍璧，直数千，而其皮荐反四十万，本末不相称。”天子不说。张汤又与异有卻，及有人告异以它议，事下张汤治异。异与客语，客语初令下有不便者，
异不应，微反唇。汤奏当异九卿见令不便，不入言而腹诽，论死。自是之后，有腹诽之法比，而公卿大夫多谄谀取容矣。
天子既下缗钱令而尊卜式，百姓终莫分财佐县官，于是告缗钱纵矣。
郡国多奸铸钱，钱多轻，而公卿请令京师铸钟官赤侧，一当五，赋官用非赤侧不得行。白金稍贱，民不宝用，县官以令禁之，无益。岁余，白金终废不行。
是岁也，张汤死而民不思。
其后二岁，赤侧钱贱，民巧法用之，不便，又废。于是悉禁郡国无铸钱，专令上林三官铸。钱既多，而令天下非三官钱不得行，诸郡国所前铸钱皆废销之，输其铜三官。而民之铸钱益少，计其费不能相当，唯真工大奸乃盗为之。
卜式相齐，而杨可告缗遍天下，中家以上大抵皆遇告。杜周治之，狱少反者。乃分遣御史廷尉正监分曹往，即治郡国缗钱，得民财物以亿计，奴婢以千万数，田大县数百顷，小县百余顷，宅亦如之。于是商贾中家以上大率破，民偷甘食好衣，不事畜藏之产业，而县官有盐铁缗钱之故，用益饶矣。
益广关，置左右辅。
初，大农筦盐铁官布多，置水衡，欲以主盐铁；及杨可告缗钱，上林财物众，乃令水衡主上林。上林既充满，益广。是时越欲与汉用船战逐，乃大修昆明池，列观环之。治楼船，高十余丈，旗帜加其上，甚壮。于是天子感之，乃作柏梁台，高数十丈。宫室之修，由此日丽。
乃分缗钱诸官，而水衡、少府、大农、太仆各置农官，往往即郡县比没入田田之。其没入奴婢，分诸苑养狗马禽兽，及与诸官。诸官益杂置多，徒奴婢众，而下河漕度四百万石，及官自籴乃足。
所忠言：“世家子弟富人或斗鸡走狗马，弋猎博戏，乱齐民。”乃徵诸犯令，相引数千人，命曰“株送徒”。入财者得补郎，郎选衰矣。
是时山东被河菑，及岁不登数年，人或相食，方一二千里。天子怜之，诏曰：“江南火耕水耨，令饥民得流就食江淮间，欲留，留处。”遣使冠盖相属于道，护之，下巴蜀粟以振之。
其明年，天子始巡郡国。东度河，河东守不意行至，不辨，自杀。行西逾陇，陇西守以行往卒，天子从官不得食，陇西守自杀。于是上北出萧关，从数万骑，猎新秦中，以勒边兵而归。新秦中或千里无亭徼，于是诛北地太守以下，而令民得畜牧边县，官假马母，三岁而归，及息什一，以除告缗，用充仞新秦中。
既得宝鼎，立后土、太一祠，公卿议封禅事，而天下郡国皆豫治道桥，缮故宫，及当驰道县，县治官储，设供具，而望以待幸。
其明年，南越反，西羌侵边为桀。于是天子为山东不赡，赦天下囚，因南方楼船卒二十余万人击南越，数万人发三河以西骑击西羌，又数万人度河筑令居。初置张掖、酒泉郡，而上郡、朔方、西河、河西开田官，斥塞卒六十万人戍田之。中国缮道饣鬼粮，远者三千，近者千余里，皆仰给大农。边兵不足，乃发武库工官兵器以赡之。车骑马乏绝，县官钱少，买马难得，乃著令，令封君以下至三百石以上吏，以差出牝马天下亭，亭有畜牸马，岁课息。
齐相卜式上书曰：“臣闻主忧臣辱。南越反，臣愿父子与齐习船者往死之。”天子下诏曰：“卜式虽躬耕牧，不以为利，有余辄助县官之用。今天下不幸有急，而式奋愿父子死之，虽未战，可谓义形于内。赐爵关内侯，金六十斤，田十顷。”布告天下，天下莫应。列侯以百数，皆莫求从军击羌、越。至酎，少府省金，而列侯坐酎金失侯者百余人。乃拜式为御史大夫。
式既在位，见郡国多不便县官作盐铁，铁器苦恶，贾贵，或强令民卖买之。而船有算，商者少，物贵，乃因孔仅言船算事。上由是不悦卜式。
汉连兵三岁，诛羌，灭南越，番禺以西至蜀南者置初郡十七，且以其故俗治，毋赋税。南阳、汉中以往郡，各以地比给初郡吏卒奉食币物，传车马被具。而初郡时时小反，杀吏，汉发南方吏卒往诛之，间岁万余人，费皆仰给大农。大农以均输调盐铁助赋，故能赡之。然兵所过县，为以訾给毋乏而已，不敢言擅赋法矣。
其明年，元封元年，卜式贬秩为太子太傅。而桑弘羊为治粟都尉，领大农，尽代仅筦天下盐铁。弘羊以诸官各自巿，相与争，物故腾跃，而天下赋输或不偿其僦费，乃请置大农部丞数十人，分部主郡国，各往往县置均输盐铁官，令远方各以其物贵时商贾所转贩者为赋，而相灌输。置平准于京师，都受天下委输。召工官治车诸器，皆仰给大农。大农之诸官尽笼天下之货物，贵即卖之，贱则买之。如此，富商大贾无所牟大利，则反本，而万物不得腾踊。故抑天下物，名曰“平准”。天子以为然，许之。于是天子北至朔方，东到太山，巡海上，并北边以归。所过赏赐，用帛百余万匹，钱金以巨万计，皆取足大农。
弘羊又请令吏得入粟补官，及罪人赎罪。令民能入粟甘泉各有差，以复终身，不告缗。他郡各输急处，而诸农各致粟，山东漕益岁六百万石。一岁之中，太仓、甘泉仓满。边余谷诸物均输帛五百万匹。民不益赋而天下用饶。于是弘羊赐爵左庶长，黄金再百斤焉。
是岁小旱，上令官求雨，卜式言曰：“县官当食租衣税而已，今弘羊令吏坐市列肆，贩物求利。亨弘羊，天乃雨。”
太史公曰：农工商交易之路通，而龟贝金钱刀布之币兴焉。所从来久远，自高辛氏之前尚矣，靡得而记云。故书道唐虞之际，诗述殷周之世，安宁则长庠序，先本绌末，以礼义防于利；事变多故而亦反是。是以物盛则衰，时极而转，一质一文，终始之变也。禹贡九州，各因其土地所宜，人民所多少而纳职焉。汤武承弊易变，使民不倦，各兢兢所以为治，而稍陵迟衰微。齐桓公用管仲之谋，通轻重之权，徼山海之业，以朝诸侯，用区区之齐显成霸名。魏用李克，尽地力，为强君。自是以后，天下争于战国，贵诈力而贱仁义，先富有而后推让。故庶人之富者或累巨万，而贫者或不厌糟糠；有国强者或并群小以臣诸侯，而弱国或绝祀而灭世。以至于秦，卒并海内。虞夏之币，金为三品，或黄，或白，或赤；或钱，或布，或刀，或龟贝。及至秦，中一国之币为二等，黄金以溢名，为上币；铜钱识曰半两，重如其文，为下币。而珠玉、龟贝、银锡之属为器饰宝藏，不为币。然各随时而轻重无常。于是外攘夷狄，内兴功业，海内之士力耕不足粮饟，女子纺绩不足衣服。古者尝竭天下之资财以奉其上，犹自以为不足也。无异故云，事势之流，相激使然，曷足怪焉。
Volume 30 · Treatise on the Balanced Standard, Eighth
司马迁
When the Han arose, it took over the ruin left by Qin. The grown men were away with the armies, the old and the weak transported the grain; the labour was heavy and wealth was wanting. From the Son of Heaven down, he could not make up a team of four matched horses, and generals and chancellors sometimes rode in ox-carts, and the common people had nothing laid by. Thereupon, because the Qin coin was heavy and hard to use, an order was issued allowing the people to cast cash, with one catty of gold as the unit, and the laws were simplified and the prohibitions reduced. But lawless men who chased after profit hoarded their surplus stocks so as to hold up the goods of the market, so that prices leapt up: rice reached ten thousand cash the dan, and a horse a hundred catties of gold.
When the empire had been pacified, Gaozu ordered that merchants should not wear silk or ride in carriages, and laid heavy rents and taxes on them to straiten and humble them. In the time of Xiaohui and the Empress Dowager Gao, because the empire had only just been settled, the laws against merchants were relaxed again; yet the sons and grandsons of the market people still could not serve as officials or hold posts. The salaries of officials were measured and the government's expenditure reckoned, and taxes were levied on the people accordingly. And the revenues from the mountains and streams, the parks and ponds and the markets, from the Son of Heaven down to the enfeoffed lords with their bath-towns, were in every case for their own private maintenance and were not brought into the empire's regular expenditure. Grain was shipped from east of the mountains to supply the offices of the capital, and it did not exceed a few hundred thousand dan a year.
By the time of Xiaowen the pod-cash had grown ever more numerous and light, so the four-zhu cash was cast instead, with the legend "half-tael," and the people were allowed to cast cash freely for themselves. Thus Wu, a feudal state, by going to the mountains and casting cash, became as rich as the Son of Heaven, and afterwards ended in rebellion; and Deng Tong, a grandee, by casting cash had wealth beyond a king's. So the cash of Wu and of the Deng family was spread over the empire, and the prohibition on casting cash was born of it.
The Xiongnu repeatedly raided the northern frontier, and those on garrison duty were many, and the frontier grain was not enough to feed those who had to be fed. So those of the people who could deliver or transport grain to the frontier were called for and granted rank, the rank going as high as Grand Leader of the Multitude.
In the time of Xiaojing there was drought west of Shangjun, and the ordinance for selling ranks was revived, with its price lowered to draw the people in; and convicts under sentence of renewed labour were allowed to deliver grain to the government to have their offences remitted. More park-horses were bred to enlarge the supply, and the palaces, belvederes, carriages and horses were ever more added to and improved.
By some years after the present emperor came to the throne, in the more than seventy years since the rise of the Han, the state had had no troubles; and except when calamity of flood or drought was met with, the people were each provided for and every house had enough. The granaries of town and country were all full, and the storehouses had goods and wealth to spare. In the capital the cash was piled in myriad myriads — a hundred million and more — and the cords had rotted so that it could not be counted. The grain of the Great Granary lay stale layer upon layer, overflowing and heaped in the open, until it spoiled and could not be eaten. Among the common folk there were horses in the streets and lanes, and herds of them between the field-paths, and one who rode a mare was shut out and not allowed to join the gatherings. Those who kept the village gates ate fine grain and meat; those who were functionaries stayed long enough to see sons and grandsons; those who held office took their office for a surname. Thus every man cherished himself and held it a grave thing to break the law, putting right conduct first and shame and disgrace after. At that time the net of the law was loose and the people were rich; and with their wealth they grew arrogant and overflowing, some going so far as to engross and form powerful factions, and to lay down the law by force in the villages. Of the imperial kin who held land, and the ministers and grandees on down, all vied in extravagance; their houses, carriages and robes went beyond their station, without limit. When things flourish they decay: such is surely the way of their turning.
After this, Yan Zhu, Zhu Maichen and the others brought over Dong'ou and dealt with the two Yue, and between the Jiang and the Huai all was desolation and heavy expense. Tang Meng and Sima Xiangru opened a road to the Yi of the south-west, cutting through mountains and opening a way of a thousand li and more, to enlarge Ba and Shu, and the people of Ba and Shu were worn out by it. Peng Wu opened trade and destroyed Chaoxian and set up the commandery of Canghai, and thereupon between Yan and Qi everything was thrown into motion. And when Wang Hui laid his plot at Mayi, and the Xiongnu broke off the marriage alliance and harried the northern frontier, the fighting was continuous and did not let up; the empire suffered under the labour, and shield and spear grew thicker by the day. Those who went took provisions and those who stayed sent them; within and without there was disturbance, and each bore the other's burden; the hundred families were worn down and took to shifts of law; wealth and bribes wasted away and did not suffice. Those who paid in goods filled offices, those who put out money were remitted their offences; selection and recommendation fell into decay, integrity and shame overlaid one another, force was advanced and employed, and the laws were severe and the ordinances complete. The ministers who raise revenue begin from this.
After this the Han generals went out yearly with some tens of thousands of horse to strike at the Hu; and the General of Chariots and Cavalry Wei Qing took the Xiongnu lands south of the He and built Shuofang. At this time the Han was opening the road to the Yi of the south-west, with some tens of thousands at work, carrying loads and provisions for a thousand li; it took some ten and more zhong delivered to yield one dan, and money was scattered among the Qiong and the Bo to gather them in. For several years the road was not opened, and the Man and the Yi took occasion to attack repeatedly, and the officials sent out troops to punish them. All the rents and taxes of Ba and Shu were not enough to meet it, so wealthy men were invited to farm among the Yi of the south, delivering grain to the government and receiving payment within, from the inner treasury. East as far as the commandery of Canghai, the cost in men and labourers was comparable to that of the southern Yi. Further, more than a hundred thousand men were raised to build and garrison Shuofang, and the transport by land and water was very far indeed, so that from east of the mountains all bore the labour of it, at a cost of some tens or hundreds of myriad myriads; and the treasuries grew ever emptier. Then it was that those of the people who could deliver slaves and bondwomen were allowed exemption for life, and Gentlemen were given increased salary; and the granting of the rank of Gentleman for delivering sheep begins from this.
Four years after that, the Han sent the Grand General leading six generals and an army of a hundred thousand and more to strike the Worthy King of the Right, and they took fifteen thousand heads and captives. The next year the Grand General with six generals went out twice again to strike the Hu, and took nineteen thousand heads and captives. The officers who took heads and captives received in gifts more than two hundred thousand catties of gold; the tens of thousands of captives all got rich rewards, and looked to the government for food and clothing. But of the Han army's men and horses more than a hundred thousand died, and the cost of arms and armour and of transport is not counted in this. Thereupon the stored cash laid up by the Grand Minister of Agriculture was used up, and the taxes being exhausted, there was still not enough to maintain the soldiers. The officials in charge said: "The Son of Heaven has said, 'I have heard that the teachings of the Five Emperors did not repeat one another and yet there was good order; that the methods of Yu and Tang did not follow the same way and yet they were kings: the roads they went by were different, but the establishing of power was one. The northern frontier is not yet secure, and I grieve over it deeply. Of late the Grand General attacked the Xiongnu and cut off nineteen thousand heads and captives, and they were held with nothing to eat. Let it be deliberated that the people be allowed to buy rank, and to redeem themselves from disqualification and have their punishments remitted or reduced.' We ask that offices of reward be established, to be named the Ranks of Military Merit. A grade to be a hundred and seventy thousand, making in all more than three hundred thousand in gold. Those who buy up to the Military Merit rank of Officer's Head are to be tried out as functionaries and given precedence in appointment; the rank of Qianfu to count as Grandee of the Fifth Rank; those who have committed an offence to have it reduced by two degrees; and the rank may go as high as Yueqing — so as to make military merit conspicuous." Where military merit was great, men often overleapt the grades: the greatest were made marquises, ministers and grandees, the lesser, Gentlemen and functionaries. The paths to office being mixed and manifold, official posts wasted away and fell into neglect.
From the time when Gongsun Hong, by holding his subordinates to the meaning of the Spring and Autumn, got the chancellorship of Han, and Zhang Tang, by deciding cases on the strictest letter, became Commandant of Justice, the law of "seeing and knowing" came into being, and the prosecutions for obstruction, thwarting and slander were pressed to the utmost. The next year the traces of the plots of the kings of Huainan, Hengshan and Jiangdu came to light, and the ministers followed up the threads and dealt with them, and exhausted their factions; and those who died for it were some tens of thousands. The senior functionaries grew ever more cruel and urgent, and the laws and ordinances ever more searching.
At that time men of rectitude, worth and learning were summoned and honoured, and some reached the rank of minister or grandee. Gongsun Hong as chancellor of Han used a cloth quilt and did not eat two dishes at a meal, to lead the empire. Yet it was of no benefit to the customs of the age, and men drifted ever more toward merit and profit.
The next year the General of Swift Cavalry went out twice again to strike the Hu, and took forty thousand heads. That autumn the Hunye King came over in surrender with a host of some tens of thousands, and thereupon the Han sent out twenty thousand carriages to meet them. When they had come, they received rewards, and gifts were made also to the officers who had done service. The cost in that year came in all to more than a hundred myriad myriads.
Earlier, more than ten years before this, the He had broken through at Guan, and the lands of Liang and Chu had already been repeatedly distressed; and the commanderies along the He embanked and stopped the He, and it kept breaking open again, at a cost past all reckoning. After that Pan Xi wished to save the shipping past Dizhu and cut the Fen and He canals to make watered fields, with some tens of thousands at work; Zheng Dangshi, because the Wei transport route was long and roundabout, cut a straight canal from Chang'an to Huayin, with some tens of thousands at work; and at Shuofang too a canal was cut, with some tens of thousands at work: each ran on for two or three terms, the work was not finished, and each cost some tens of myriad myriads besides.
The Son of Heaven, for the campaign against the Hu, bred horses on a great scale; the horses that came to be fed at Chang'an were some tens of thousands, and there were not enough men within the Passes to lead and tend them, so they were drafted from the neighbouring commanderies. And the Hu who surrendered were all fed and clothed by the government; and the government not being able to provide, the Son of Heaven reduced his own table, unharnessed the team of his carriage, and brought out the forbidden stores of the imperial wardrobe to supply them.
The next year there was flood damage east of the mountains, and many of the people were hungry and destitute; so the Son of Heaven sent envoys to empty the granaries of the commanderies and kingdoms to relieve the poor. It was still not enough, and rich and powerful men were further invited to make loans. Still they could not be saved, so the poor were moved west of the Pass and to fill the New Qin lands south of Shuofang, more than seven hundred thousand souls, all looking to the government for food and clothing. For several years they were lent the means of a livelihood; envoys were divided by districts to look after them, their caps and canopies within sight of one another. The cost of it was reckoned in hundreds of millions, past all counting.
Thereupon the government was greatly emptied, while rich merchants and great traders hoarded wealth and put the poor to work, with carts by the hundred; they held goods back and sat on them in the towns, and the enfeoffed lords all bowed their heads and looked to them for supply. From smelting and casting and boiling salt some had wealth piled to ten thousand catties of gold, and yet gave no help in the state's urgencies, and the black-headed people were doubly distressed. Thereupon the Son of Heaven deliberated with the ministers on altering the cash and making a new currency, to supply the need and to break the men who floated in idleness and engrossed the market. At this time there was a white deer in the forbidden park and much silver and tin in the Privy Treasury. From Xiaowen's casting of the four-zhu cash to this year was more than forty years; and since the Jianyuan period, the supply being short, the government had often gone straight to the copper-rich hills and cast cash, and the people too privately cast cash in secret, past all counting. The cash grew ever more numerous and light, goods ever scarcer and dearer. The officials in charge said: "In antiquity there was a hide currency, which the feudal lords used for visits and offerings. Of metals there were three grades: yellow gold the highest, white metal the middle, red metal the lowest. Now the half-tael cash by law weighs four zhu, but rogues privately file the backs of the coins and take the filings, so that the cash grows ever lighter and thinner while goods grow dear; and then the use of currency in distant parts is troublesome and wasteful." So the hide of the white deer, a foot square, edged with a pattern of embroidery, was made into the hide currency, worth four hundred thousand. Kings, marquises and the imperial kin at their audiences and visits and offerings had to lay their jade discs on the hide currency, and only then could they proceed.
Further, silver and tin were made into white metal. Holding that for Heaven's use nothing equals the dragon, for Earth's nothing equals the horse, and for man's nothing equals the tortoise, the white metal was of three sorts: the first weighed eight taels, was round, had the dragon for its device, was named "the white elect," and was worth three thousand; the second was smaller by a degree, was square, had the horse for its device, and was worth five hundred; the third was smaller again, was oval, had the tortoise for its device, and was worth three hundred. The government was ordered to melt down the half-tael cash and cast three-zhu cash instead, the legend answering to the weight. Counterfeiting any of these metal coins was a capital offence; yet the officials and people who counterfeited the white metal were past all counting.
Thereupon Dongguo Xianyang and Kong Jin were made Assistants to the Grand Minister of Agriculture, in charge of the affairs of salt and iron; and Sang Hongyang, employed for his reckoning, was made Palace Attendant. Xianyang was a great salt-boiler of Qi, and Kong Jin a great smelter of Nanyang, and both had built up fortunes of a thousand catties of gold; so Zheng Dangshi put their names forward. Hongyang was the son of a merchant of Luoyang, and by his head for figures was Palace Attendant at thirteen. So these three men split a hair's tip in talking of profit.
The laws having grown ever more severe, many functionaries were cashiered and dismissed. Arms being repeatedly set in motion, many of the people bought exemption and the rank of Grandee of the Fifth Rank, and the men available for levy grew ever fewer. So Qianfu and Grandees of the Fifth Rank were appointed functionaries, and those who did not wish it put out horses instead; and the former functionaries were all sent as a punishment to cut thorn-brush in Shanglin and to make the Kunming Pool.
The next year the Grand General and the General of Swift Cavalry went out in force to strike the Hu, and took eighty or ninety thousand heads and captives, and half a million in gold was given in reward; of the Han army's horses more than a hundred thousand died, and the cost of transport, carts and armour is not counted in this. At this time wealth was wanting, and the fighting men for the most part could not get their pay.
The officials in charge said that the three-zhu cash was light and easy to counterfeit, and so asked instead that the commanderies and kingdoms cast five-zhu cash, with a rim running round the underside, so that it could not be filed for the filings.
The Grand Minister of Agriculture sent up a statement of his salt and iron assistants Kong Jin and Xianyang: "The mountains and the seas are the storehouse of Heaven and Earth, and should all belong to the Privy Treasury; but Your Majesty, not taking them for his own, has assigned them to the Grand Minister of Agriculture to assist the revenue. We beg that people be called for who will provide their own costs, and use government implements to boil salt, the government supplying the pans. Floating and freakish men who live off others wish to take into their own hands the monopoly of the goods of mountain and sea, and so to attain surpassing wealth and set the small people to labour for their profit. The arguments they put up to obstruct the business are past all listening to. Let any who dare privately to cast iron implements or boil salt be fettered on the left foot and have their implements and goods confiscated. In commanderies that do not produce iron, let a lesser iron office be set up, conveniently under the county where they are." Kong Jin and Dongguo Xianyang were sent by post-carriage to take in hand the salt and iron of the empire and to set up government works, appointing as functionaries the rich men of the old salt and iron families. The paths to office grew ever more mixed; there was no selection, and there were many merchants.
The merchants, because of the change in the currency, accumulated goods in quantity and chased after profit. Thereupon the ministers said: "The commanderies and kingdoms have been a good deal stricken by calamity, and poor people without means of livelihood have been called on to move to broad and fertile lands. Your Majesty has cut his own table and reduced his expenditure and brought out the forbidden cash to relieve the common folk, and has been liberal in loans and taxes; yet the people do not all go out to the southward acres, and merchants grow ever more numerous. The poor have nothing stored and all look to the government. In former times the levy on light carriages and on merchants' string-cash was graded; we ask that the levy be as before. All merchants and craftsmen who lend on credit, buy and sell, sit in the towns and hold up the various goods, and any who trade for profit, even though they have no market registration, shall each declare their goods themselves, at the rate of one suan for every two thousand in string-cash. All crafts that pay rent, and casting, at the rate of one suan for every four thousand in string-cash. Those not ranked as functionaries — the Thrice Venerable and the horsemen of the northern frontier — one suan for a light carriage; merchants' light carriages, two suan; boats of five zhang and upward, one suan. Those who conceal and do not declare, or declare incompletely, shall garrison the frontier for a year and have their string-cash confiscated. Any who can inform shall be given half of it. Merchants on the market register, and their households, shall none of them be allowed to register land in their names, so as to favour agriculture. Any who dare break the ordinance shall have their fields and slaves confiscated."
The Son of Heaven then called to mind the words of Bu Shi, and summoned and appointed Shi a Gentleman of the Household, with the rank of Leader of the Multitude of the Left and a gift of ten qing of land, and proclaimed it throughout the empire so that all might know of it plainly.
Now at the first, Bu Shi was a man of Henan, who made his living by farming and herding. When his parents died, Shi had a younger brother; and when the brother grew up, Shi took himself off and divided with him, taking only a hundred and more of the sheep he had raised and giving the brother all the fields, the house and the goods. Shi went into the hills and herded for ten and more years, until the sheep came to more than a thousand head, and he bought fields and a house. And his brother squandered his whole estate, and Shi again and again divided with him afresh. At this time the Han was repeatedly sending its generals to strike the Xiongnu, and Bu Shi submitted a memorial offering to hand over half his household's wealth to the government to help the frontier. The Son of Heaven sent a messenger to ask Shi: "Do you want office?" Shi said: "From my youth I have herded, and I am not practised in serving as an official; I do not want it." The messenger asked: "Has your household some wrong, that you wish to lay a matter before him?" Shi said: "In my life I have had no quarrel or contention with anyone. To the poor of my town I lend; the badly behaved I teach to be tractable; those I live among all follow me — for what cause should I be wronged by anyone? I have nothing I wish to lay before him." The messenger said: "If it is so, what is it that you want, that you do this?" Shi said: "The Son of Heaven is punishing the Xiongnu. In my foolishness I hold that the worthy should die for their duty on the frontier, and those who have wealth should hand it over; and in this way the Xiongnu can be destroyed." The messenger set down his words in full and brought them in to be reported. The Son of Heaven spoke of it to the chancellor Hong. Hong said: "This is not human nature. A minister who keeps no rule cannot be made a model, and would throw the laws into disorder; I beg Your Majesty not to consent." Thereupon the emperor for a long while made Shi no answer, and after several years dismissed him. Shi went home and returned to his farming and herding. A year or so later it happened that the armies repeatedly went out, and the Hunye King and the rest surrendered, and the government's expenses were many, and the granaries and treasuries were empty. The next year there was the great migration of the poor, who all looked to the government, and there was not the means to supply them all. Bu Shi took two hundred thousand in cash and gave it to the Grand Administrator of Henan for the use of the migrants. Henan sent up the register of rich men who had helped the poor; the Son of Heaven saw Bu Shi's name and recognized it, and said, "This is surely the man who some while ago wished to hand over half his household to help the frontier"; and so he bestowed on Shi the labour-exemption of four hundred men. Shi again gave the whole of it back to the government. At this time the rich and powerful all vied in hiding their wealth, and only Shi was eager beyond the rest to hand his over to meet the costs. The Son of Heaven thereupon held Shi to be in the end a man of substance and worth, and honoured and made him conspicuous, to set the fashion for the hundred families.
At the first Shi did not wish to be a Gentleman. The emperor said: "I have sheep in Shanglin, and I wish you to herd them." So Shi accepted appointment as a Gentleman, and in cloth clothes and straw sandals herded the sheep. A year or so later the sheep were fat and had increased. The emperor passed by and saw his sheep, and thought well of them. Shi said: "It is not sheep only; the governing of people is just like this. Make them rise and rest with the seasons; and any that are bad, drive out at once, and do not let them spoil the flock." The emperor thought Shi remarkable, and appointed him magistrate of Goushi to try him, and Goushi found him convenient. He was promoted magistrate of Chenggao, and was first in the management of transport. The emperor held Shi to be plain and loyal, and appointed him Grand Tutor to the King of Qi.
And Kong Jin, having been sent to have implements cast throughout the empire, within three years was appointed Grand Minister of Agriculture and ranked among the Nine Ministers. And Sang Hongyang, as Assistant to the Grand Minister of Agriculture, had charge of all the accounting business, and little by little set up the equable transport to make goods circulate.
For the first time functionaries were allowed to deliver grain to fill offices, Gentlemen up to the six hundred dan rank.
Five years after the making of the white metal and the five-zhu cash, pardon was granted to the officials and people condemned to death for counterfeiting the metal coins — some hundreds of thousands. Those who went undiscovered and killed one another were past all reckoning. Those who came forward under the pardon were more than a million; yet not half of them came forward, for the empire at large had all, one may reckon, been casting metal coins. The offenders being many, the officials could not put them all to death and seize them; so the erudites Chu Da, Xu Yan and the others were sent out in sections to go round the commanderies and kingdoms, and to denounce the engrossers and the chancellors and administrators who made profit. And the Imperial Secretary Zhang Tang was then at the height of his honour and power; Jian Xuan, Du Zhou and the rest were Palace Assistants; Yi Zong, Yin Qi, Wang Wenshu and the rest, by their cruelty, urgency and harsh severity, became Nine Ministers; and the Directly Appointed such as Xia Lan first appeared.
And Yan Yi, Grand Minister of Agriculture, was put to death. At the first, Yi had been a village head in Jinan, and by his integrity and uprightness rose by degrees to be one of the Nine Ministers. When the emperor and Zhang Tang had made the white deer hide currency, he asked Yi about it. Yi said: "Now kings and marquises at their court audiences present green jade discs worth a few thousand, and yet the hide they are laid on is worth four hundred thousand; root and branch do not answer to one another." The Son of Heaven was displeased. Zhang Tang moreover had a grudge against Yi; and when someone denounced Yi over another matter, the case was sent down to Zhang Tang to deal with Yi. Yi had been talking with a visitor, and the visitor had said that in the ordinances newly issued there were things not convenient;
Yi made no answer, but slightly turned down his lip. Tang memorialized that Yi, as one of the Nine Ministers, seeing an ordinance to be inconvenient, had not come in and said so but had slandered it in his belly, and the sentence was death. From this time on there was a precedent in law for slander in the belly, and ministers and grandees for the most part fawned and flattered to make themselves acceptable.
The Son of Heaven having issued the string-cash ordinance and honoured Bu Shi, the hundred families still would not part with their wealth to assist the government; and so informing against string-cash was let loose.
In the commanderies and kingdoms there was much counterfeiting of cash, and the cash was mostly light; so the ministers asked that the Bell Office of the capital cast red-rimmed cash, one to count as five, and that no payment for official use should pass unless it were red-rimmed. The white metal grew steadily cheaper, and the people did not prize or use it; the government forbade this by ordinance, without effect. A year or so later the white metal was at last abolished and no longer current.
In that year Zhang Tang died, and the people did not miss him.
Two years after that, the red-rimmed cash grew cheap; the people used the law's shifts in handling it, and it was not convenient, and it too was abolished. Thereupon all the commanderies and kingdoms were forbidden to cast cash, and casting was made the sole charge of the Three Offices of Shanglin. The cash being now abundant, it was ordered that in the empire nothing but Three Offices cash should pass; and all the cash previously cast by the commanderies and kingdoms was abolished and melted down, and its copper delivered to the Three Offices. And the people's casting of cash grew ever less, for reckoning the cost it did not pay; only the true craftsmen and the great rogues still did it in secret.
Bu Shi was chancellor to Qi, and Yang Ke's informing against string-cash went through the whole empire; households of the middling sort and upward were for the most part all informed against. Du Zhou dealt with these cases, and few of the judgments were reversed. So the Imperial Secretaries, the Rectifier and the Inspector of the Commandant of Justice were sent out separately in sections, and dealt on the spot with the string-cash of the commanderies and kingdoms, and the people's goods and wealth taken were reckoned in hundreds of millions, their slaves and bondwomen in tens of millions, their fields in a great county several hundred qing, in a small county a hundred qing and more, and their houses likewise. Thereupon the merchants of the middling sort and upward were for the most part broken; the people snatched at sweet food and fine clothes and did not attend to the business of storing and laying up; while the government, what with salt and iron and the string-cash, had its supply ever more abundant.
The Pass region was further enlarged, and the Assistants of the Left and Right were established.
At the first, the Grand Minister of Agriculture having charge of much of the salt and iron office's issue, the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks was set up, meaning that he should have charge of salt and iron; and when Yang Ke informed against string-cash and the goods and wealth in Shanglin were many, the Superintendent was ordered to take charge of Shanglin. Shanglin being now filled up, it was further enlarged. At this time Yue wished to fight and pursue the Han with ships, so the Kunming Pool was greatly enlarged and belvederes ranged around it. Storeyed ships were built, more than ten zhang high, with standards set upon them, a most imposing sight. Thereupon the Son of Heaven was stirred by it, and built the Boliang terrace, some tens of zhang high. The building of palaces grew from this day more splendid.
The string-cash was then divided among the various offices, and the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks, the Privy Treasury, the Grand Minister of Agriculture and the Grand Coachman each set up agricultural offices, and here and there farmed the confiscated fields of the commanderies and counties. The slaves and bondwomen confiscated were distributed among the parks to feed dogs, horses, birds and beasts, and among the various offices. The various offices being ever more mixed and numerous, and the convicts, slaves and bondwomen many, the shipping down the He was reckoned at four million dan, and only with the government buying grain besides was it enough.
Suo Zhong said: "The sons and younger brothers of great houses, and rich men, some of them fight cocks and race dogs and horses, shoot and hunt and gamble, and throw the common people into disorder." So all who had broken the ordinances were summoned, and they implicated one another to the number of several thousand, and these were called "the rooted-out and delivered." Those who paid in wealth could fill the post of Gentleman, and the selection of Gentlemen fell into decay.
At this time the region east of the mountains was stricken by the He's disaster, and for several years the harvests had failed, so that in a space of one or two thousand li men in places ate one another. The Son of Heaven pitied them, and issued an edict saying: "South of the Jiang they burn to till and flood to weed. Let the starving people be allowed to move and find food between the Jiang and the Huai; and those who wish to stay, let them stay there." Envoys were sent, their caps and canopies following one another on the road, to look after them, and the grain of Ba and Shu was brought down to relieve them.
The next year the Son of Heaven first toured the commanderies and kingdoms. He crossed the He to the east; the Grand Administrator of Hedong, not expecting the progress to come, was unprepared and killed himself. Going west he crossed the Long; the Grand Administrator of Longxi, the progress having come suddenly upon him, could not feed the Son of Heaven's attendant officers, and the Grand Administrator of Longxi killed himself. Thereupon the emperor went out north by the Xiao Pass with some tens of thousands of horse, hunted in the New Qin lands to drill the frontier troops, and returned. In the New Qin lands there were places without a watch-post or patrol for a thousand li, and thereupon the Grand Administrator of Beidi and those under him were put to death; and the people were allowed to pasture herds in the frontier counties, the government lending them brood-mares to be returned in three years with a tenth of the increase, and their informing against string-cash was remitted, so as to fill up the New Qin lands.
The treasure-tripod having been obtained, the shrines of the Sovereign Earth and of Taiyi were set up, and the ministers deliberated on the business of the feng and shan; and all the commanderies and kingdoms of the empire beforehand repaired their roads and bridges, put the old palaces in order, and in the counties along the imperial highway the counties put their stores in order and set out the furnishings of entertainment, and looked out in expectation of the imperial visit.
The next year Southern Yue revolted, and the Western Qiang harried the frontier and ran riot. Thereupon the Son of Heaven, because the region east of the mountains was not well supplied, pardoned the empire's prisoners, and with more than two hundred thousand of the southern storeyed-ship troops struck at Southern Yue; and some tens of thousands raised from the horsemen west of the Three He struck at the Western Qiang; and another some tens of thousands crossed the He and built Lingju. The commanderies of Zhangye and Jiuquan were established for the first time, and in Shangjun, Shuofang, Xihe and Hexi agricultural offices were opened, and six hundred thousand frontier troops garrisoned and farmed there. Within the Central States roads were repaired and grain sent up, three thousand li at the furthest and a thousand and more at the nearest, all looking to the Grand Minister of Agriculture for supply. The frontier arms being insufficient, the weapons of the armoury and of the artisans' office were issued to supply them. Chariot and cavalry horses being used up and gone, and the government cash being little and horses hard to buy, an ordinance was laid down that from the enfeoffed lords down to officials of the three hundred dan rank and upward, all should put out mares in due gradation to the empire's post-stations, each station to keep breeding mares and be assessed yearly on the increase.
Bu Shi, chancellor of Qi, submitted a memorial saying: "Your servant has heard that when the ruler is troubled the minister is disgraced. Southern Yue has revolted; your servant asks that he and his son, with those of Qi who are practised with ships, go and die for it." The Son of Heaven issued an edict saying: "Though Bu Shi tills and herds with his own hands, he does not take that for his profit, and whenever he has a surplus he helps the government's needs. Now the empire has the misfortune of an emergency, and Shi has roused himself and asked that he and his son die for it; and though he has not fought, it may be said that his sense of duty takes shape within. Let him be granted the rank of Marquis Within the Passes, sixty catties of gold and ten qing of land." It was proclaimed throughout the empire, and in the empire none answered. Of full marquises there were some hundreds, and not one of them asked to join the campaign against the Qiang and the Yue. When the zhou sacrifice came, the Privy Treasury inspected the gold, and of the full marquises more than a hundred lost their marquisates over the sacrificial gold. Thereupon Shi was appointed Imperial Secretary.
Shi being now in office, he saw that in the commanderies and kingdoms many found the government's working of salt and iron inconvenient — the iron implements were poor and bad, the prices dear, and in places the people were compelled to buy and sell them; and there was a levy on boats, so that traders were few and goods dear; and so, through Kong Jin, he spoke of the matter of the boat levy. From this the emperor was displeased with Bu Shi.
The Han had had armies in the field three years running: it punished the Qiang and destroyed Southern Yue, and from Panyu westward to the south of Shu seventeen new commanderies were set up, and for the time being governed according to their own customs, without taxes. The commanderies from Nanyang and Hanzhong onward each, according to which lay nearest, supplied the new commanderies' officials and troops with pay, food, cash and goods, and with post-carriages, horses and harness. And the new commanderies from time to time made small revolts and killed officials, and the Han sent southern officials and troops to punish them, in some years more than ten thousand men, the cost all looking to the Grand Minister of Agriculture. The Grand Minister of Agriculture, by the equable transport and the regulation of salt and iron, assisted the revenue, and so was able to supply them. Yet in the counties the armies passed through, it was merely a matter of providing from their means so that nothing should be lacking, and none dared speak of levying taxes on their own authority.
The next year, the first year of Yuanfeng, Bu Shi was demoted in rank to Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent. And Sang Hongyang was made Commandant of Grain and superintendent of the Grand Ministry of Agriculture, and wholly took Jin's place in the management of the empire's salt and iron. Hongyang, because the various offices each traded on their own and competed with one another, so that goods therefore leapt up in price, while the empire's tax deliveries sometimes did not cover the cost of their carriage, asked that some tens of Section Assistants of the Grand Minister of Agriculture be established, to have charge of the commanderies and kingdoms by sections, each here and there setting up in the counties offices of equable transport and of salt and iron; and it was ordered that distant parts should each render as tax the goods that merchants carried and traded in when they were dear, and that these should be poured from one to another. An office of the Balanced Standard was set up in the capital, to receive all the deliveries of the empire. The artisans' office was called on to make carriages and the various implements, all looking to the Grand Minister of Agriculture for supply. The various offices of the Grand Minister of Agriculture took the whole of the empire's goods into their net: when dear they sold, when cheap they bought. In this way rich merchants and great traders would have no great profit to seize, and would go back to the root; and the myriad goods could not leap up in price. So the goods of the empire were held down, and it was named "the Balanced Standard." The Son of Heaven thought it right and consented to it. Thereupon the Son of Heaven went north as far as Shuofang, east to Mount Tai, toured the seaboard, and came home along the northern frontier. The gifts bestowed on the way used more than a million bolts of silk and cash and gold reckoned in myriad myriads, all taken in full from the Grand Minister of Agriculture.
Hongyang further asked that functionaries be allowed to deliver grain to fill offices, and offenders to redeem their offences; and that the people who could deliver grain to Ganquan in the several gradations be exempted for life and not informed against for string-cash. Other commanderies each delivered to the places of urgent need, and the various agricultural offices each brought in grain, so that the shipping from east of the mountains increased to six million dan a year. Within a single year the Great Granary and the Ganquan granary were full. On the frontier there was surplus grain and other goods, and five million bolts of silk from the equable transport. The people's taxes were not increased and the empire's supply was abundant. Thereupon Hongyang was granted the rank of Leader of the Multitude of the Left, and twice a hundred catties of gold.
That year there was a slight drought, and the emperor ordered the officials to pray for rain. Bu Shi said: "The government ought to eat off its rents and clothe itself from its taxes, and no more. Now Hongyang has functionaries sitting in the market rows and the shops, trading goods and seeking profit. Boil Hongyang, and Heaven will rain."
The Lord Grand Astrologer says: When the roads of exchange among farmers, craftsmen and merchants were opened, then the currencies of tortoise-shell and cowrie, of gold and cash, of knife-money and cloth-money arose. Their origin is far off and long ago, from before the time of Gaoxin, too remote to be recorded. Thus the Documents tell of the age of Tang and Yu, and the Odes set forth the ages of Yin and Zhou: when there was peace and quiet, the schools were fostered, the root was put first and the branch put down, and by ritual and right conduct a barrier was raised against profit; and when affairs changed and troubles were many, it was the reverse of this. Therefore when things flourish they decay, and when a time reaches its limit it turns: now plain substance, now ornament — this is the alternation of ending and beginning. The Tribute of Yu had nine provinces, each rendering its service according to what its soil was fit for and according to the number of its people. Tang and Wu took over decay and changed it, so that the people did not tire, and each was anxious and careful in the means of good order; yet by degrees they sank and grew feeble. Duke Huan of Qi used the plans of Guan Zhong, made circulate the balancing of light and heavy, and took in the business of mountain and sea, and so brought the feudal lords to court, and with the small state of Qi made conspicuous the name of hegemon. Wei used Li Ke and exhausted the strength of the soil, and became a strong ruler. After this the empire contended as Warring States: craft and force were valued and benevolence and right conduct despised; wealth and possession were put first and yielding put after. And so among the common people the rich piled up their myriad myriads, while the poor had not their fill of husks and chaff; among the states the strong swallowed up the lesser ones and made vassals of the feudal lords, while the weak had their sacrifices cut off and their lines extinguished. So it came to Qin, which at last united all within the seas. The currencies of Yu and Xia had metal in three grades — yellow, white and red — or else cash, or cloth, or knives, or tortoise-shell and cowrie. When it came to Qin, the currency of the whole realm was made of two grades: yellow gold, named by the yi, as the higher currency; and copper cash with the legend "half-tael," of the weight its legend declared, as the lower currency. And pearls and jade, tortoise-shell and cowrie, silver and tin and the like were made into vessels, ornaments and treasure, and were not currency. Yet each of these went by its time, and their value was never constant. Thereupon, driving off the Yi and Di without and raising works and enterprises within, the men of all within the seas ploughed with all their strength and there was not grain enough, and the women spun and wove and there were not clothes enough. In antiquity the whole realm's resources were once drained to serve those above, and still they thought it not enough. There is no other cause for it: the drift of circumstance, working one upon another, brought it so. What is there in this to wonder at?